INFOFACTSRESOURCES 
The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention 
 
Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse Among First-year College Students
by Virginia Ross, Ph.D., and William DeJong, Ph.D. 

Although any new undertaking is exciting because of the opportunities it may bring, the transition to college life also brings new pressures and uncertainties. From the shelter of home, young people emerge into a new culture, with a new environment for success. Here they are their own masters, often far from the vigilance of parents and the strictures of tightly scheduled school days. As they take this step toward independence, they face the temptation to celebrate their newfound freedom, test limits, and perhaps escape from new pressures through alcohol and other drugs.   

This guide addresses three questions: 1. How serious is the problem of alcohol and other drug use among first-year students? 2. What developmental and environmental factors make the first year of college a time of greater vulnerability? 3. How can prevention professionals help students successfully negotiate the sometimes
perilous transition from high school to college life?

Scope of the Problem
Heavy drinking by students in institutions of higher education (IHEs) was characterized as "widespread, dangerous, and disruptive" by the Task Force on College Drinking of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). (see reference 1)  

National surveys find that about two in five U.S. undergraduates engage in heavy drinking, which is typically defined as having five or more drinks in a row at least once in a two-week period. (see reference 2)  According to survey data compiled by the Core Institute in 2004, 45.3 percent of freshmen nationally can be classified as heavy drinkers. The same data indicate that 17.7 percent are heavy and frequent drinkers, meaning that they engaged in at least one episode of heavy drinking in the previous two weeks and drank on three or more occasions per week. (see reference 3)  

The negative consequences associated with college alcohol use are legion, including personal injury, physical illness, high-risk sexual behavior, and death. Research estimates that 1,700 college students ages 18-24 die annually from alcohol-related unintentional injuries. Nearly 80 percent of those deaths are associated with driving after drinking. In 2001, just over 10 percent of college students reported being injured, while 8 percent reported having unprotected sexual intercourse because of their drinking. (see reference 4) 

Difficulty in academics also is associated with higher levels of alcohol consumption. One national survey reported that students with an A average consumed an average of 3.4 drinks per week, while B average students consumed 4.5 drinks, C average students 6.1 drinks, and D or F students 9.8 drinks. (see reference 5)  About one-fourth of college students report academic problems caused by alcohol use, such as earning lower grades, doing poorly on exams or papers, missing classes, and falling behind in their studies. (see reference 6)  College administrators report that significant numbers of students drop out each year because alcohol interfered with their academic work. (see reference 7)  

Many students confront problems because their classmates misuse alcohol: interrupted study and sleep (60.0 percent), having to take care of a drunken student (47.6 percent), being insulted or humiliated (29.2 percent), having a serious argument (19.0 percent), having personal property damaged (15.2 percent), receiving unwanted sexual advances (19.5 percent), being hit or assaulted (8.7 percent), and being a victim of sexual assault or date rape (1 percent). (see reference 8)  In addition, alcohol is sometimes a precursor to other substance use-often illicit and even more dangerous drugs. (see reference 9) 

Elevated Risk in the First Year of College
The transition to college life is a key risk period, according to college-based prevention professionals. The college years are the time many youths first experiment with alcohol, while others move from experimentation to frequent use. (see reference 10)  In fact, escalated drinking during the transition to college is so common that the phenomenon has been given a name: the "College Effect." (see reference 11)  Data from the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study show that about one-fifth of students who did not drink heavily in high school begin to do so once they entered college. (see reference 12)  At the same time, students who drank in high school often are predisposed to seeking a college environment that enables or even encourages heavy drinking. 

Life transitions in general are times of risk for increased alcohol use and abuse, but many features of the college transition make it a particularly risky period. First, a big jump in high-risk alcohol use is typical among many young people of traditional college age. Studies conducted during the last decade reveal that the highest proportion of both heavy drinkers and multi-substance abusers are found among people ages 18-29 years. (see reference 13) 

Second, college attendance itself creates additional risk, as evidenced by the fact that college students use more alcohol and do so more frequently than young adults not attending college. (see reference 14)  Going to college brings a substantial increase in responsibility and stress, as students face major decisions that will direct the course of their academic, professional, and personal lives for years to come. 

Moreover, many entering college students arrive on campus expecting to drink heavily while in college, and campus environments-often defined by easy access to alcohol, marketing and advertising that glorifies high-risk drinking, and weak enforcement of the institution's rules and local and state laws-too often facilitate that choice. (see reference 15)  Unscheduled time is more abundant. Living arrangements also are a factor: first-year college students who live in residence halls use more alcohol than those who continue to live with their parents. (see reference 16)  Students tend to anticipate that alcohol will deliver their expected college experience and that drinking will ensure social success, according to Robert Chapman in "When They Drink: Alcohol and the First-Year Experience as Seen by Students." Students may expect alcohol to bolster their confidence as they risk seeking a peer group in a completely new setting. (see reference 17)  

Mary Stuart Hunter, director of the National Resource Center for the First-Year Experience and Students in Transition, states that today's first-year students are facing challenges beyond what parents or faculty members faced when they matriculated, amplifying the risk of substance abuse. Hunter notes that a higher percentage of entering students today are already heavily involved with alcohol and other drugs. There also are more new students who suffer from depression, anxiety, and other mental health problems, and many of these students are taking prescription medications. (see reference 18)  Chronic social isolation is more prevalent, enabled by 24-hour Internet access. And students today more often experience substantial financial distress caused by high tuition, student loans, and social pressure to enjoy a high-end college lifestyle, which is abetted by easy access to credit cards. (see reference 19)  

Hunter adds that parents today are more likely to view college as a "commodity" they are buying for their children. Such parents are more likely to be an intrusive presence in their children's lives, leaving them in a kind of suspended childhood. New technologies, including cell phones, e-mail, and instant messaging, can facilitate a hovering parental presence. This type of parental involvement, Hunter asserts, can interfere with children's maturation and undermine their ability to assume adult responsibilities and make healthy lifestyle choices. (see reference 20)  According to Hunter, the college transition takes longer than educators generally believe, not just the first few weeks of college, but the entire first year. Moreover, there are predictable phases in this process of transition. Times of high risk for alcohol and other drug abuse problems include the early fall, when first-year students might be establishing behavior patterns that will be difficult to change, and the January return to campus. For students generally, holidays, academic breaks, and special campus events (e.g., football games, festivals) also are times of greater risk. (see reference 21) 

Despite strong evidence that the first year of college is a critical risk period, few college alcohol and other drug abuse prevention programs specifically target this key transitional stage. Hunter and James S. Gahagan, of the University of South Carolina-Columbia, make the case for changing this state of affairs: "Ignoring or discounting the issues faced by first-year students has tremendous costs-to the institution in student attrition and to the individual student in unproductive expenditures in time and effort and a resulting sense of failure." (see reference 22) 

Sidebar
Transfer Students
College freshmen are not the only first-year students at colleges and universities. The National Resource Center for the First-Year Experience and Students in Transition found that approximately half of college graduates had started their college careers at another institution. Transfer students as well as college freshmen need to be included in alcohol and other drug abuse prevention programs for students in transition. 

Interventions for First-year Students
Clearly, the alcohol and other drug abuse problems associated with the college transition argue for a greater focus on first-year students. 

Environmental Management Approaches 
Substance use problems are driven by environmental factors that increase both the availability and the appeal of alcohol and other drugs, each of which can be addressed by a set of environmental management strategies: (see reference 23) 

1. Alcohol-free Options: Many students, especially at residential colleges, have few adult responsibilities like jobs and family, a great deal of unstructured free time, and too few social and recreational options. The strategic objective: offer and promote social, recreational, extracurricular, and public service options that do not include alcohol and other drugs.
2. Normative Environment: Many people accept drinking and other drug use as a "normal" part of the college experience. The strategic objective: create a social, academic, and residential environment that supports
health-promoting norms.
3. Alcohol Availability: Too often alcohol is abundantly available to students and is inexpensive. The strategic objective: limit alcohol availability both on and off campus.
4. Alcohol Marketing and Promotion: Local bars, restaurants, and liquor stores may use aggressive promotions to target those who are underage and others in college who drink. The strategic objective: restrict marketing and promotion of alcoholic beverages both on and off campus.
5. Policy Development and Enforcement: Campus policies and local, state, and federal laws related to substance use may not be enforced consistently for the campus population. The strategic objective: develop and enforce campus policies and enforce local, state, and federal laws, and make sure everyone knows what the policies are.

The environmental management approach encourages town-gown collaboration to address these factors and change the campus and community environments in which students make decisions about alcohol and other drug use. 

A large 2006 study (N = 3,720) found that first-semester heavy drinking is highly predictable, mostly because of continuity with precollege patterns of behavior. These findings suggest that interventions should be timed to interfere with the momentum of previously established drinking behavior. (see reference 24) Knowing the points of peak risk during a student's first year can help campus officials time their interventions for maximum effectiveness. For example, some colleges stipulate that all social events on campus be "dry" during orientation week and arrange activities with very little down time in the schedule. As entering students explore the social life on campus, these policies structure an opportunity to discover alcohol-free activities in a campus and community atmosphere that supports the decision to avoid drinking. Likewise, some campuses have found that delayed fraternity and sorority rush helps curb high-risk drinking and other drug use, as students going through rush later are likely to be more comfortable and secure in their roles as college students. 

For a list of suggested environmental management approaches, see figure 1, "Applying Environmental Management to the First-Year Experience."

Within this general environmental management approach, strategies can be selected to guide and support first-year students as they make the transition to college life, moving them toward a successful academic career. First-year students will make healthier choices about alcohol consumption and other drug use if they are embraced by a welcoming community that is value-centered and demanding in its expectations, yet highly supportive. Entering students need to learn-and to experience-that they are part of a community where academic focus, responsible and healthy decision-making, and care for others are the norm. With that larger vision in mind, colleges and universities can incorporate the following practices into their own overarching programs to help students make a successful transition to college. 

Preenrollment Messages
First-year students typically have exaggerated ideas about how much college students drink. Wanting to fit in and being free of parental control for the first time, these students can be led by this misperception into a pattern of heavy drinking that increases their risk of academic failure, serious injury, sexual assault, and even death.

Social norms marketing campaigns try to counteract these false beliefs by conveying accurate survey data about student drinking norms. The idea is that once students learn that far fewer students are drinking heavily than they once thought, they will feel less social pressure to drink and, therefore, moderate their alcohol use. Several IHEs-Northern Illinois University, the University of Arizona, Western Washington University, and Hobart and William Smith Colleges, among others-have reported success with social norms marketing campaigns. (see reference 25)  Two randomized trials involving 32 IHEs found that, when examining institutions located in communities with lower alcohol outlet density, students attending institutions that implemented a campaign had a lower relative risk of heavy alcohol consumption than students attending control group institutions. However, when examining institutions located with higher alcohol outlet density, the campaigns were not successful. (see reference 26) 

To reach first-year students, a social norms campaign should begin well before their first week of college and then continue throughout the academic year. Why wait until students arrive on campus? The start of the academic year is a hectic time, when entering students are overwhelmed by new information and the stress of settling in, and there is a risk that the campaign's message will get lost. In contrast, communicating in advance about the actual drinking norms, while also clarifying the college's expectations for student conduct, has the potential to help students make healthier choices from the moment they arrive on campus. 

To begin, colleges can capitalize on the admissions acceptance letter, perhaps the most memorable correspondence students will receive from their institution. A companion letter to parents can reinforce the social norms message in the context of providing guidance on how to talk with their child about substance use. (see reference 27)  After students commit to attending a college, the institution will send preenrollment information about fall orientation, housing, and course registration, which also can carry prevention messages.

In 2000, George Mason University initiated an innovative transitions program called Healthy Expectations, which helps prepare students moving from high school to college by promoting positive "life health principles," correcting misperceptions about campus alcohol and other drug use, and encouraging open and healthy communication with family. Program staff give presentations at local high schools and manage a Web site with tips, facts, quizzes, worksheets, and other resources, to which prospective, admitted, and newly matriculated students are referred via e-mail. (see reference 28) 
Open houses for accepted students and the opportunity for campus visits provide other instances to educate both students and parents about student alcohol and other drug use and campus policies and to dispel misperceptions about prevailing campus drinking norms. Upperclass students who serve as student hosts and allow accepted students to stay overnight in a campus residence hall also can be trained to reinforce the social norms message.  

Sidebar:
Actions Speak Louder Than Words
All too often first-year students are told that their college does not condone underage or high-risk drinking, but then they receive a very different message from the day-to-day reality of big, unsupervised parties, easy access to bars, and cheap or free alcohol. Exhortations to say "no" to underage or excessive drinking will not have a lasting effect if the campus and community environment says "yes."

FIGURE 1. Applying environmental management to the first-year experience

Provide Alcohol-free Options.	
¥	Create and promote alcohol-free events for first-year students.
¥	Support student clubs and organizations that are substance-free.
¥	Create and promote service learning and volunteer opportunities.
¥	Require community service work as part of the academic curriculum.
¥	Open or expand hours at a student center, recreation facilities, or other alcohol-free settings.
¥	Promote consumption of nonalcoholic beverages and food at events.

Create a Healthy Normative Environment.
¥	Offer a greater number of substance-free residence halls.
¥	Promote faculty-student contact.
¥	Require students to meet regularly with academic adviser.
¥	Require students to meet regularly with resident assistant.
¥	Employ older resident assistants.
¥	Prohibit fraternity and sorority rush for first-year students.
¥	Require students to take more morning and Friday classes.

Restrict Alcohol Availability.
¥	Require all social events during orientation to be "dry."
¥	Require first-year students to live on campus.
¥	Disseminate responsible host guidelines for both on- and off-campus parties.
¥	Install a responsible beverage service program. 
¥	Train alcohol servers and managers to stop service to underage or intoxicated students.
¥	Train alcohol servers and managers in the latest techniques and technologies for recognizing false IDs.
¥	Eliminate residence hall delivery of alcohol purchases.
¥	Advertise food and activities, such as dancing or sports, rather than drinking as the focus of the event.

Restrict Marketing and Promotion of Alcohol.
¥	Ban alcohol promotions with special appeal to underage drinkers.
¥	Ban advertising of high-risk promotions. 

Strengthen Policy Development and Enforcement.
¥	Review campus alcohol and other drug policies and strengthen where necessary.
¥	Disseminate campus alcohol and other drug policies and publicize their enforcement.
¥	Require on-campus functions to be registered.
¥	Impose tough penalties for possessing a fake ID.
¥	Enforce minimum legal drinking age laws.
		Ã Increase ID checks at on-campus functions and parties.
		Ã Use decoy operations at campus pubs and on-campus functions.
		Ã Increase ID checks at off-campus bars and liquor stores.
		Ã Use decoy operations at retail alcohol outlets.
		Ã Enforce seller penalties for sale of liquor to minors.
¥	Support local and state enforcement in imposing driver's license penalties for minors violating alcohol laws, 
	and in changing driver's licensing procedures and formats.
¥	Notify parents of their children's rules violations.

	Source: Adapted from Zimmerman, R., and DeJong, W. Safe Lanes on Campus: A Guide for Preventing Impaired Driving and Underage Drinking 
	(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention, 2003).

Orientation Week
The National Resource Center for the First-Year Experience and Students in Transition estimates that as many as 2,000 IHEs in the United States now offer comprehensive orientation programs that include information about the institution's alcohol and other drug policies and enforcement. (see reference 29)  In that context, during general assemblies and in written support materials, the president, dean of freshmen, or other high-level official should deliver the social norms message and establish clear expectations for student conduct.

As part of its "RhodeMap to Safety" campaign, the University of Rhode Island distributes information to both first-year students and their parents. Key messages describe survey findings about widespread student support for stricter enforcement of drinking and driving laws; current state laws and local ordinances; descriptions of the campus's parental notification and "three-strikes" policy, whereby students with three policy infractions can be suspended or in some cases expelled; enhanced driving under the influence (DUI) patrols and other enforcement actions by local police; and responsible beverage service policies practiced by local alcohol retailers as part of a cooperating tavern program.

As an alternative to the standard lecture about alcohol and other drug use, the University at Albany, State University of New York, founded a peer theater troupe called the Middle Earth Players to perform before first-year and other student groups. The Middle Earth Players do an orientation performance that incorporates social norms data on student drinking and misperceptions of drinking norms, with the purpose of promoting, reinforcing, and supporting students' healthy lifestyle choices. An evaluation study found that the performance is superior to an academic lecture in changing students' knowledge, beliefs, and alcohol-related behaviors. (see reference 30) 

Orientation week programs can include other activities that help students connect with campus resources and programs that direct them away from alcohol and other drug use. Boston College, for example, offers a community service program and a sports competition during its orientation week. Recent findings show that increasing numbers of college freshmen are interested in volunteer community service. (see reference 31)  Programs that support this trend reinforce students' perceptions that they have joined a healthy academic community.

Sidebar:
Resident Assistants and Peer Mentors

During orientation week or after arriving to start classes, first-year students on many campuses will meet their resident assistant (RA) and perhaps an assigned peer mentor. These student advisers also should be equipped with accurate information about campus drinking norms and trained to recognize potential signs that first-year students may be struggling with alcohol or other drugs.

Fall Semester
First-year students need basic information about alcohol and other drugs-the health, safety, and legal risks that come with substance use; how alcohol and other drugs affect brain development and learning; how choices about alcohol and other drug use affect both academic and personal success; and substance use norms on campus. This information must be presented in the context of a comprehensive program that includes environmental management strategies; stand-alone informational programs have been shown to be ineffective in preventing alcohol and other drug abuse. (see reference 32) 

Students also need a structured opportunity to examine their own patterns of alcohol and other drug use, to explore how substance use may affect their life goals, and to discover whether their positive expectations about substance use (e.g., increased sociability and sexual attractiveness) may be unrealistic. They then need to learn ways to reduce their alcohol and other drug use risk, including managing stress and other factors that can result in increased use, tracking daily alcohol consumption, and deciding to adhere to a drinking limit before they go to social events. 

Some institutions meet these needs by having first-year students attend a mandatory life skills course. At the University of Rhode Island, all first-year students take URI 101: Traditions and Transformations, a one-credit freshman seminar designed to help students navigate their first year in a new setting. Most class sections, limited to 25 students each, are designed for particular majors or around other student interests (e.g., athletics, leadership). URI 101's larger focus is to help students identify their personal education goals, plan their courses of study, enhance their academic skills, learn about available resources at the university, and explore career options. The seminar also requires an inquiry-based community service experience. Specific course units focus on substance use issues. One class conveys the social norms message by collecting data from the class and then comparing the class's estimates of campus alcohol and other drug use against what the students themselves reported.

The Rochester Institute of Technology provides a first-year enrichment course with similar aims, using a combination of course instruction and coaching to help students become "independent members of the college community in order to facilitate their academic and personal success." (see reference 34)  Specific units cover goal setting, time management, learning strategies, university resources, plagiarism, ethical decision-making, and community expectations. The latter unit, which emphasizes the development of personal responsibility, equips students with information and skills to think through the consequences of their choices. The course, required of all freshmen, matches each freshman with a student affairs professional who serves as a performance coach. Group leaders and peer educators in these small seminars are trained to recognize students who are struggling with the transition to college and who might be at risk for substance use-related problems. 

Fall semester is also a good time for first-year students to complete a personal risk assessment and receive feedback on their drinking. A brief motivational interview program called Brief Alcohol Screening and Intervention for College Students (BASICS) is one such program, which involves two sessions in which students fill out an assessment, receive feedback about their drinking behavior, and work with a trained counselor to develop a plan for change. Research data show that high-risk drinkers who participate in the BASICS program significantly reduce both their alcohol use and drinking-related problems compared with participants in a control group. (see reference 35)  Other research has shown that individually tailored feedback delivered by mail also can be effective. (see reference 36) 

Online programs are a very efficient means for colleges to provide basic alcohol and other drug education and to identify and intervene with students at risk, and many institutions are adopting this approach. A literature review published in 2005 described five Web-based alcohol education and intervention programs that target college drinkers. Most of the programs use a mix of educational, skills-based, and motivational strategies to present materials, and all five include drinking assessment questions and personalized feedback or other information customized to each user. There is growing evidence that these learning tools can increase student knowledge, change attitudes, build skills, and ultimately reduce alcohol use. (see reference 37)   Some online programs can be set up to require that students complete the entire curriculum and pass an examination on the content.

Throughout the fall semester and into the spring, alcohol and other drug abuse prevention information can be incorporated into already planned events. The fall parents' weekend, for example, provides an opportunity to support parents in communicating expectations to their children. Reminder messages also can be sent out to first-year students via e-mail, newspaper ads, residence hall presentations, and other campus venues. 

Sidebar:
Passport Program

Grand Valley State University in Michigan developed the Passport Program for students who want "to enjoy the college experience without indulging in alcohol or other drugs." The program has four goals:

1.	Assign a peer mentor who can serve as a point of contact for entering students and can guide them through their first year on campus.
2.	Provide a quality living experience for students who choose to live with other residents who desire not to use alcohol in any setting.
3.	Offer welcome week activities, monthly social outings, and semester service projects for residents living in Passport Housing.
4.	Provide opportunities for residents to learn about and develop stronger leadership skills.


Sidebar:
Disclosing Information to Parents of 
Postsecondary Students

The following information is excerpted from the U.S. Department of Education's Web site regarding what the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) "says about postsecondary institutions sharing information with parents": (see reference 33) 

¥	Under FERPA, schools may release any and all information to parents,    without the consent of the eligible student, if the student is a dependent for tax purposes under the IRS rules. 
¥	The Department interprets FERPA to permit schools to disclose information from education records to parents if a health or safety emergency involves their son or daughter. 
¥	Another provision in FERPA permits a college or university to let parents of students under the age of 21 know when the student has violated any law or policy concerning the use or possession of alcohol or a controlled substance.
¥	Additionally, under FERPA, schools may disclose information from "law enforcement unit records" to anyone-including parents or federal, state,  or local law enforcement authorities-without the consent of the eligible student. Many colleges and universities have their own campus security units. Records created and maintained by these units for law enforcement purposes are exempt from the privacy restrictions of FERPA and can be shared with anyone.

Appropriate Involvement of Parents
Many IHEs have been reluctant to involve parents or guardians in alcohol and other drug abuse prevention. They know well that some parents, out of sincere and deep-seated concern, participate too much in their children's lives and decisions. But new research shows that, if involved appropriately, parents can help their first-year students navigate the transition to college: 

¥	Young people are at lower risk of alcohol and other drug use problems during the transition to college if their parents are involved in communicating about substance abuse, even in late adolescence. (see reference 38)  
¥	Conflict between parents and children at the beginning of college has been correlated with heavier alcohol consumption and negative consequences one year later among fraternity and sorority members. (see reference 39)  
¥	Parental monitoring has been shown to moderate the negative influence of peers. (see reference 40)  

These findings underscore the importance of parental involvement even when their teens have entered college and moved away from home. Strategies to involve parents as potential allies in college alcohol and other drug abuse prevention work are just beginning to be explored.

A 2002 study showed that first-year college students whose parents read an extensive manual describing how to talk to their teens about alcohol-related problems had lower drinking rates and experienced fewer alcohol-related consequences than students whose parents did not read the manual. The researchers found that first-year students were less likely to drink heavily if their mothers talked with them before college about alcohol effects and drinking consequences. (see reference 41)  Researchers are now trying to distill what made these discussions effective.

Conclusion
Perhaps no other crossroads in life is fraught with as much possibility for both growth and risk as the transition to college. IHEs can help students navigate this transition in a healthy way. Environmental management strategies have been shown to be effective in addressing each of the factors that increase the appeal and availability of alcohol and other drugs on campus. A wide range of resources is now available to campuses, including the successful experience of many IHEs across the country that have already established varied programs based on environmental management strategies. Effective alcohol and other drug abuse interventions targeted at first-year students during this critical period can help determine the future trajectory of promising young lives. 

Virginia Ross, Ph.D., is a freelance writer in Acton, Mass. William DeJong, Ph.D., is a professor of social and behavioral sciences at the Boston University School of Public Health and a senior adviser to the Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention.

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24. 	Sher, K. J., and Rutledge, P. C. "Heavy Drinking across the Transition to College: Predicting First-Semester Heavy Drinking from Precollege Variables." Addictive Behavior 32: 819-835, 2007.
25. 	Perkins, H. W. (ed.) The Social Norms Approach to Preventing School and College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook for Educators, Counselors, and Clinicians (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003).
26. 	DeJong, W.; Schneider, S. K.; Towvim, L. G.; Murphy, M. J.; Doerr, E. E.; Simonsen, N. R.; Mason, K. E.; and Scribner, R. A. "A Multisite Randomized Trial of Social Norms Marketing Campaigns to Reduce College Student Drinking." Journal of Studies on Alcohol 67: 868-879, 2006; DeJong, W.; Schneider, K. S.; and Towvim, L. G. "Two Multi-Site Randomized Trials of Social Norms Marketing Campaigns to Reduce College Student Drinking," Paper presented at the Annual Scientific Meeting of the Research Society on Alcoholism, Chicago, 2007; Scribner, R. A., and Theall, K. "Bridging the Gap Between Alcohol Norms and the Environment," Paper presented at the Annual Scientific Meeting of the Research Society on Alcoholism, Chicago, 2007. 
27. 	Turrisi, R.; Jaccard, J.; Taki, R.; Dunnam, H.; and Grimes, J. "Examination of the Short-Term Efficacy of a Parent Intervention to Reduce College Student Drinking Tendencies." Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 15: 366-372, 2002.
28. 	George Mason University. Healthy Expectations. Available at http://www.healthyexpectations.gmu.edu. (Last accessed on June 19, 2006.)
29. 	Skipper, T. L. Student Development in the First College Year: A Primer for College Educators (Columbia, S.C.: National Resource Center for the First-Year Experience and Students in Transition, 2005).
30. 	Cimini, M. D.; Page, J. C.; and Trujillo, D. "Using Peer Theater to Deliver Social Norms Information: The Middle Earth Players Program." Report on Social Norms: Working Paper #8, 2. Little Falls, N.J.:  PaperClip Communications, 2002. For more information on the Middle Earth program, visit http://www.albany.edu/counseling_center.
31. 	Pryor, J. H.; Hurtado, S.; Saenz, V. B.; Lindholm, J. A.; Korn, W. S.; and Mahoney, K. M. The American Freshman: National Norms for Fall 2005 (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute, University of California, 2006).
32. 	Task Force [NIAAA], A Call to Action.
33. 	For more information, see "Disclosure of Information from Education Records to Parents of Postsecondary Students" at http://www.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/hottopics/ht-parents-postsecstudents.html. (Last accessed on Jan. 29, 2008.)
34. 	For more information, visit http://www.rit.edu/
	studentaffairs/assessment/Documents/FYE2005-06.doc. (Last accessed on Feb. 1, 2008.)
35. 	Dimeff, L.; Baer, J.; Kivlahan, D.; and Marlatt, G. Brief Alcohol Screening and Intervention for College Students (BASICS): A Harm Reduction Approach (New York: Guilford Press, 1999).
36. 	Agonstinelli, G.; Brown, J. M; and Miller, W. R. "Effects of Normative Feedback on Consumption among Heavy Drinking College Students." Journal of Drug Education 25: 31-40, 1995.
37. 	Walters, S.; Miller, E.; and Chiauzzi, E. "Wired for Wellness: E-Interventions for Addressing College Drinking." Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 29: 139-145, 2005.
38. 	Windle, M. "Parental, Sibling, and Peer Influences on Adolescent Substance Use and Alcohol Problems." Applied Developmental Science 4: 98-110, 2000.
39. 	Turner, A. P; Larimer, M. E.; and Sarason, I. G. "Family Risk Factors for Alcohol-Related Consequences and Poor Adjustment in Fraternity and Sorority Members: Exploring the Role of Parent-Child Conflict." Journal of Studies on Alcohol 61: 818-826, 2000.
40. 	Wood, M. D.; Hevey, C. A.; Laird, R. D.; Stevenson, J. S.; and Mitchell, R. E. Prospective Examination of Relations Between Social Influences and Alcohol Use among College Students: Evidence for Reciprocal Influences. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Research Society on Alcoholism, Denver, 2000.
41. 	Turrisi et al., "Examination of the Short-Term Efficacy of a Parent Intervention." 

Resources

Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools (OSDFS)
U.S. Department of Education
http://www.ed.gov/osdfs; 202-260-3954

OSDFS supports efforts to create safe schools, respond to crises, prevent alcohol and other drug abuse, ensure the health and well-being of students, and teach students good citizenship and character. The agency provides financial assistance for drug abuse and violence prevention programs and activities that promote the health and well-being of students in elementary and secondary schools and institutions of higher education. 

The U.S. Department of            Education's Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention
http://www.higheredcenter.org; 1-800-676-1730; TDD Relay-friendly, Dial 711

The Higher Education Center offers an integrated array of services to help campuses and communities come together to identify problems; assess needs; and plan, implement, and evaluate alcohol and other drug abuse and violence prevention programs. Services include training; technical assistance; publications; support for the Network Addressing Collegiate Alcohol and Other Drug Issues; and evaluation activities. The Higher Education Center's publications are free and can be downloaded from its Web site.

National Resource Center for   The First-Year Experience and Students in Transition, 
University of South Carolina 
http://www.sc.edu/fye; no telephone number

The National Resource Center promotes the development of campus-based and international communities that are committed to the success of first-year students and students in transition.

The Network Addressing Collegiate Alcohol and Other Drug Issues
http://www.thenetwork.ws; see Web site for 
telephone contacts by region

The Network Addressing Collegiate Alcohol and Other Drug Issues (Network) is a national consortium of colleges and universities formed to promote healthy campus environments by addressing issues related to alcohol and other drugs. Developed in 1987 by the U.S. Department of Education, the Network comprises member institutions that voluntarily agree to work toward a set of standards aimed at reducing alcohol and other drug problems at colleges and universities. It has approximately 1,600 members nationwide. 

Disclaimer:
This publication was funded by the Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools at the U.S. Department of Education under contract number ED-04-CO-0137 with Education Development Center, Inc. The contracting officer's representative was Richard Lucey, Jr. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Department of Education, nor does the mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. government. This publication also contains hyperlinks and URLs for information created and maintained by private organizations. This information is provided for the reader's convenience. The U.S. Department of Education is not responsible for controlling or guaranteeing the accuracy, relevance, timeliness, or completeness of this outside information. Further, the inclusion of information or a hyperlink or URL does not reflect the importance of the organization, nor is it intended to endorse any views expressed, or products or services offered.  




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